Qinghai-Tibet Plateau Of China Research Articles

Insights on droplet drift and effective utilization of pesticide in “Third Pole”：Qinghai-Tibet Plateau of China

Crop protection pesticide spraying aims to greatly improve the utilization rate of pesticides. Controlling pesticides deposition requires a thorough understanding of the spatial behaviour of spray droplets.The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, which is the headwaters of three largest water resources (Yangtze, Yellow and Lancang) in China, has exceptionally unique climatic characteristics. The goal is to reduce the amount of pesticides entering water resources. The wind tunnel experiment was used to validate the discrete phase method for tracking the trajectories. Cooperation between the smaller and larger droplets (greater than 150 μm) in the dense area around the nozzle can undoubtedly enhance the initial dispersion of droplet sizes. Droplet coalescence, which lowers the proportion of readily dispersed droplets, can greatly boost droplet deposition onto the target location.The crucial drift height is presented and clarified when droplets gradually disperse by identifying the descending length at which efficiency of mass transit starts towards decrease off quickly. The pesticide transport efficiency will not be enhanced by reducing the initial relative spread of droplets if the actual spray height surpasses the crucial drift height, and may even worsen drift loss. The temperature and relative humidity of the air have a greater influence on the evaporation losses of droplets smaller than 150 μm. In addition to providing information about pesticide spraying, the results of studies on droplet drift behaviors also suggest a method for controlling drift.

Soil, Plant, and Microorganism Interactions Drive Secondary Succession in Alpine Grassland Restoration.

Plant secondary succession has been explored extensively in restoring degraded grasslands in semiarid or dry environments. However, the dynamics of soil microbial communities and their interactions with plant succession following restoration efforts remain understudied, particularly in alpine ecosystems. This study investigates the interplay between soil properties, plant communities, and microbial populations across a chronosequence of grassland restoration on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in China. We examined five succession stages representing artificial grasslands of varying recovery durations from 0 to 19. We characterized soil microbial compositions using high-throughput sequencing, enzymatic activity assessments, and biomass analyses. Our findings reveal distinct plant and microbial secondary succession patterns, marked by increased soil organic carbon, total phosphorus, and NH4+-N contents. Soil microbial biomass, enzymatic activities, and microbial community diversity increased as recovery time progressed, attributed to increased plant aboveground biomass, cover, and diversity. The observed patterns in biomass and diversity dynamics of plant, bacterial, and fungal communities suggest parallel plant and fungal succession occurrences. Indicators of bacterial and fungal communities, including biomass, enzymatic activities, and community composition, exhibited sensitivity to variations in plant biomass and diversity. Fungal succession, in particular, exhibited susceptibility to changes in the soil C: N ratio. Our results underscore the significant roles of plant biomass, cover, and diversity in shaping microbial community composition attributed to vegetation-induced alterations in soil nutrients and soil microclimates. This study contributes valuable insights into the intricate relationships driving secondary succession in alpine grassland restoration.

A Study on the Anti-inflammatory Activity of Clematis tangutica Using Molecular Networking

Background:: Clematis tangutica, an indigenous medicinal herb native to the Qinghai- Tibet Plateau of China, has traditionally been associated with treating various inflammation-related diseases. While its therapeutic potential is recognized, a comprehensive characterization of its metabolite molecules and their anti-inflammatory properties has not been undertaken. Objective:: This study aimed to comprehensively profile the metabolite molecules of Clematis tangutica and identify potential anti-inflammatory active molecules using the Activity Labelled Molecular Networking (ALMN) approach. Methods:: The ALMN approach was employed to visually label activity to the feature-based molecular network, allowing for the profiling of potential anti-inflammatory active molecules in Clematis tangutica. Through correlating activity levels with the respective molecules, a detailed profiling was achieved. Results:: Out of the 8,644 metabolite molecules in Clematis tangutica, ten were identified as the most potent anti-inflammatory molecules. Among these, Spiraeoside was notably annotated along with its structure. Conclusion:: This research successfully identified ten potent anti-inflammatory molecules from the vast metabolite profile of Clematis tangutica, including a detailed annotation of Spiraeoside. This marked a significant step in bridging traditional therapeutic knowledge with modern molecular profiling techniques.

Chromosome-level genome assembly of Hippophae gyantsensis

Hippophae gyantsensis, which is a native tree species in China, is ideal for windbreak and sand-fixing forests. It is an economically and ecologically valuable tree species distributed exclusively in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in China. In our study, we assembled a chromosome-level genome of H. gyantsensis using Illumina sequencing, Nanopore sequencing and chromosome structure capture technique. The genome was 716.32 Mb in size with scaffold N50 length of 64.84 Mb. A total of 716.25 Mb genome data was anchored and orientated onto 12 chromosomes with a mounting rate of up to 99.99%. Additionally, the genome was found to comprise approximately 56.84% repeat sequences, of which long terminal repeats(LTRs) that accounted for 33.19% of the entire genome. Meanwhile, a total of 32,316 protein-coding genes were predicted, and 91.07% of these genes were functionally annotated. We also completed a series of comparative genomic analyses to provide researchers with useful reference material for future studies on seabuckthorn.

Multi-isotopic composition (Li and B isotopes) and hydrochemistry characterization of the Lakko Co Li-rich salt lake in Tibet, China: Origin and hydrological processes

A comprehensive comprehension of the origin and ore-forming process of lithium brine deposits is imperative prior to engaging in lithium resource exploration, development and utilization. Nevertheless, the provenance of lithium in salt lakes has always been controversial. The lithium and boron (Li and B) isotopes, which serve as discerning geochemical tracers, can facilitate the monitoring of geological processes and sources. In this study, we investigated the hydrochemistry, Li and B isotope characteristics of surface brine and recharge river samples collected from the Lakko Co on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in China. The dissolved Li concentrations range from 0.11 to 590.8 mg/L, δ7Li and δ11B values exhibit a range of 0.75∼8.11 ‰ and -18.29∼-4.01 ‰, respectively. Concentrations of elements such as Rb, and Cu are relatively high and exhibit a strong correlation with Li. Ions composition and content ratios indicate the deep origin of Li and B. The analysis of δ7Li and δ11B suggests that, apart from hot spring, weathering of surrounding rocks also contributes to the presence of Li and B. Besides, variations in δ11B values within the lake brine analysis may be attributed to the deposition of water Magnesite at the lake bottom. The findings suggest that the recharge water system and hot springs serve as the primary source of Li and B in Lakko Co. Additionally, the interaction between water and rock in the deep crust as well as chemical weathering in the shallow environment, significantly contribute to formation of Li-rich fluids. The transportation process is characterized by the precipitation of secondary mineral, resulting in an increase of δ7Li and δ11B. Furthermore, the presence of water Magnesite in the lake brine leads to fluctuations in δ11B. This investigation of the lake contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of the origins and mechanisms involved in the transportation and storage of lithium in lithium-rich salt lakes.

Pasteurella multocida strains of a novel capsular serotype and lethal to Marmota himalayana on Qinghai-Tibet plateau in China

Pasteurella multocida is a zoonotic pathogen causing serious diseases in humans and animals. Here, we report P. multocida from wildlife on China's Qinghai-Tibet plateau with a novel capsular serotype, forming a single branch on the core-genome phylogenetic tree: four strains isolated from dead Himalayan marmot (Marmota himalayana) and one genome assembled from metagenomic sequencing of a dead Woolly hare (Lepus oiostolus). Four of the strains were identified as subspecies multocida and one was septica. The mouse model showed that the challenge strain killed mice within 24 h at an infectious dose of less than 300 bacteria. The short disease course is comparable to septicemic plague: the host has died before more severe pathological changes could take place. Though pathological changes were relatively mild, cytokine storm was obvious with a significant rise of IL-12p70, IL-6, TNF-αand IL-10 (P < 0.05). Our findings suggested P. multocida is a lethal pathogen for wildlife on Qinghai-Tibet plateau, in addition to Yersinia pestis. Individuals residing within the M. himalayana plague focus are at risk for P. multocida infection, and public health warnings are necessitated.

Faunal remains data from Paleolithic-early Iron Age archaeological sites in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in China.

According to published archaeological sources, zooarchaeological data collection on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and its marginal and transitional areas is inadequate, and relevant datasets have not been published. For this reason, we collected and collated relevant information. Our database provides the geographical location, elevation, cultural type and faunal assemblage of each site on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and its periphery for which zooarchaeological data have been published from the Paleolithic to the Early Iron Age. The patterns of human faunal resource use, habitat patterns, and animal abundance and spatial distribution on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and its surrounding areas during the Prehistoric-Early Iron Age are represented in this dataset. The data provide a reference for further understanding prehistoric-early Iron Age human behavior, subsistence patterns and material and cultural exchanges between East and West on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and its environs.

Tibetan medicine Bang Jian: a comprehensive review on botanical characterization, traditional use, phytochemistry, and pharmacology.

Tibetan medicine Bang Jian refers to a range of botanical drugs within the Gentiana genus. It serves as a prominent traditional Tibetan botanical drug primarily found in the ethnic minority regions of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in China. Traditionally, the dried flowers of Bang Jian, known as "Longdanhua" have been employed in Tibetan medicine to address detoxification, pharyngeal relief, acute and chronic bronchitis, bronchiectasis, lung infections, pulmonary fibrosis, and throat disorders. Surprisingly, there has been no comprehensive review published to date on Tibetan medicine Bang Jian. This passage systematically presents and critically assesses recent advancements in botanical characterization, traditional applications, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and clinical uses of Bang Jian, aiming to provide a scientific foundation for its reasonable use and further exploration. To date, researchers have isolated and identified 92 structurally diverse compounds, with a predominant presence of iridoids, flavonoids, xanthones, and triterpenoids. The crude extracts and metabolites derived from Bang Jian have been found to exhibit a wide range of pharmacological effects, encompassing anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, anti-bacterial, antiviral, antioxidant, hepatoprotective properties, and protect the respiratory system. Nevertheless, detailed data on the biological effects, metabolic activities, and mechanistic research concerning active monomer metabolites remain insufficient. Consequently, there is a pressing need for comprehensive and in-depth research to guide rational clinical drug usage and evaluate the medicinal attributes of Bang Jian.

Common pool resource governance in strong-government context: A case study of caterpillar fungus (Ophiocordyceps sinensis) on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

The common pool resource (CPR) theory has inspired the recognition of community self-governance in natural resource management. However, many CPR literature treated government as an external variable to community, without sufficiently considering the close interaction between the two, especially in strong-government context. In this paper, we applied two case villages on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau of China with different governance systems for caterpillar fungus (Ophiocordyceps sinensis), a CPR with lucrative values, to study the effects of the different government interventions on the local social conditions and rangeland ecosystem. One village interacted with facilitative local government that helped to develop a pro-community self-governance institution, while the other faced a forceful government that substituted the community self-governance. Furthermore, we explored the underlying mechanism from the view of the congruence between the government actions to achieve administrative objectives and the community demands for self-governance. We found that the better outcomes occurred in the village with the facilitative government involvement, because the government actions were congruent with the community demands. The model with facilitative government involvement presents a possible approach, when CPR appropriator boundary became semi-opened to outsiders, by which the community self-governance institution could function well with government help in institution design, monitoring and sanction. Our findings enrich the applications of CPR governance theory, particularly in the aspect that how government-community interacts to develop a self-governance institution in strong-government context.

Molecular Cloning and Functional Characterization of the 5′ Regulatory Region of the SLC11A1 Gene from Yaks

The solute transport protein family 11 A1 (SLC11A1), also recognized as natural resistance-associated macrophage protein 1 (NRAMP1), represents a transmembrane protein encoded by the SLC11A1 gene. A variety of prior investigations have illuminated its involvement in conferring resistance or susceptibility to bacterial agents, positioning it as a promising candidate gene for breeding disease-resistant animals. Yaks (Bos grunniens), renowned inhabitants of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in China, stand as robust ruminants distinguished by their adaptability and formidable disease resistance. Notwithstanding these unique traits, there is scant literature on the SLC11A1 gene in the yak population. Our inquiry commences with the cloning of the 5′ regulatory region sequence of the Zhongdian yak SLC11A1 gene. We employ bioinformatics tools to identify transcription factor binding sites, delineating pivotal elements like enhancers and cis-acting elements. To ascertain the promoter activity of this region, we amplify four distinct promoter fragments within the 5′ regulatory region of the yak SLC11A1 gene. Subsequently, we design a luciferase reporter gene vector containing four site-specific deletion mutations and perform transient transfection experiments. Through these experiments, we measure and compare the activity of disparate gene fragments located within the 5′ regulatory region, revealing regions bearing promoter functionality and discerning key regulatory elements. Our findings validate the promoter functionality of the 5′ regulatory region, offering preliminary insights into the core and principal regulatory segments of this promoter. Notably, we identified single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that may be associated with important regulatory elements such as NF-1 and NF-1/L. This study provides a theoretical framework for in-depth research on the function and expression regulation mechanism of the yak SLC11A1 gene.

Decoding the DNA of scat and the application of genetic methodologies to understanding carnivore diet

Carnivore species are vital to ecosystem function and maintenance. One key component to understanding carnivore ecology and the most effective means of management is knowledge of dietary resource use. Traditional methods used to study carnivore diet, such as microhistology, have several technical and logistical shortcomings. These have hindered the quality and quantity of data that shape understanding of how carnivores exploit prey. Advances in genetic methodologies and their application to wildlife biology has transformed the manner in which information about species can be gained. DNA metabarcoding is one such example. With this approach, genetic sequences present in scat can be determined via next-generation sequencing and matched to reference databases, revealing the carnivore that deposited the scat and the prey it consumed. DNA metabarcoding has the ability to overcome many of the previous challenges associated with dietary analysis and works to advance and inform current knowledge surrounding carnivore ecology, predatorprey relationships, conflicts between carnivores and humans, and potential adaptability to large-scale landscape shifts. Its use has provided novel insights on numerous carnivore species to help inform research priorities and wildlife policies, including those living in unique fragile environments such as the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau of China. The continued development and increased capacity of molecular dietary analysis via DNA metabarcoding has the promise to grossly improve carnivore conservation management strategies on a global scale.

An integrative methodology framework for assessing regional ecological risk by land degradation using the case of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau

Land degradation poses significant threats to the sustainability of ecosystem structures, functions, and services, leading to increasing ecological risks. However, integrative assessment of the ecological risk driven by land degradation remains a challenge. In this study, we established a methodological framework for assessing regional ecological risk by integrating degenerative land use transitions with multiple ecological indicators. Specifically, 11 degradation modes of land use transitions and 7 indicators on ecosystem structures, functions, and services are quantitatively integrated using remote sensing data from 2000 to 2020 in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau of China. Results revealed that the comprehensive ecological risk of the plateau is higher in the southern and northern regions. Furthermore, we found that land development from forests towards cropland and degradation towards grasslands lead to higher ecological risks than grassland development and degradation. The ecological risk tends to show a significant distance decay pattern around the patches with land degradation. Our research framework provides an efficient, explicit, and transferable means of exploring spatiotemporal changes in ecological risk caused by degenerative land use transitions at the regional scale. It presents a constructive tool for facilitating regional-scale land use and ecosystem management planning and assessment.

Spatio-temporal variation and conservation priorities of wilderness in Lhasa River Basin, Tibetan Plateau

Wilderness plays a crucial role in biodiversity conservation, and its preservation represents a pivotal objective emphasized in the Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF). Nonetheless, wilderness frequently faces threats from the escalating impact of human activities, leading to significant repercussions on diverse ecological processes. Despite the abundance of previous studies on wilderness, there has been a limited focus on the temporal dynamics at the local scale, as well as on identifying the conservation priorities in terms of their ecosystem services. In this study, taking the Lhasa River Basin in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau of China as an example, the spatio-temporal variations of wilderness were analyzed, and conservation priorities of them were further identified based on ecosystem services. The results revealed a persistent decline in the wilderness from 1990 to 2020, particularly in terms of bare land and grassland. Furthermore, we identified that 33.56% of the remaining wilderness necessitated special attention. These findings offer valuable insights into potential future threats to wilderness and hold critical importance for formulating regional conservation strategies at the local scale.

Effects of Different Livestock Grazing on Foliar Fungal Diseases in an Alpine Grassland on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.

In grassland ecosystems, the occurrence and transmission of foliar fungal diseases are largely dependent on grazing by large herbivores. However, whether herbivores that have different body sizes differentially impact foliar fungal diseases remains largely unexplored. Thus, we conducted an 8-year grazing experiment in an alpine grassland on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in China and tested how different types of livestock (sheep (Ovis aries), yak (Bos grunniens), or both)) affected foliar fungal diseases at the levels of both plant population and community. At the population level, grazing by a single species (yak or sheep) or mixed species (sheep and yak) significantly decreased the severity of eight leaf spot diseases. Similarly, at the community level, both single species (yak or sheep) and mixed grazing by both sheep and yak significantly decreased the community pathogen load. However, we did not find a significant difference in the community pathogen load among different types of livestock. These results suggest that grazing by large herbivores, independently of livestock type, consistently decreased the prevalence of foliar fungal diseases at both the plant population and community levels. We suggest that moderate grazing by sheep or yak is effective to control the occurrence of foliar fungal diseases in alpine grasslands. This study advances our knowledge of the interface between disease ecology, large herbivores, and grassland science.

P48. Scoliosis among children in Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau of China: a cross-sectional epidemiological study

P48. Scoliosis among children in Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau of China: a cross-sectional epidemiological study

P49. Scoliosis among children in Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau of China: a cross-sectional epidemiological study

P49. Scoliosis among children in Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau of China: a cross-sectional epidemiological study

Extracting water body data based on SDWI and threshold segmentation: A case study in permafrost area surrounding Salt Lake in Hoh Xil, Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, China

There are a large number of lakes, rivers, and other natural water bodies distributed in the permafrost area of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP). The changes in water bodies will affect the distribution of water resources in surrounding areas and downstream areas, resulting in environmental impact and bringing potential flood disasters, which will induce more serious issues and problems in alpine and high-altitude areas with a fragile habitat (such as the QTP in China). Generally, effective, reasonable, and scientific monitoring of large-scale water bodies can not only document the changes in water bodies intuitively, but also provide important theoretical reference for subsequent environmental impact prediction, and disaster prevention and mitigation in due course of time. The large-scale water extraction technology derived from the optical remote sensing (RS) image is seriously affected by clouds, bringing about large differences among the extracted water result products. Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) RS technology has the unique advantage characteristics of all-weather, all-day, strong penetration, and not being affected by clouds, which is hopeful in extracting water body data, especially for days with cloudy weather. The data extraction of large-scale water bodies based on SAR images can effectively avoid the errors caused by clouds that become prevalent at present. In this paper, the Hoh Xil Salt Lake on the QTP and its surrounding five lakes are taken as the research objects. The 2-scene Sentinel-1 SAR image data covering the whole area on 22 August 2022 was used to verify the feasibility of extracting water body data in permafrost zones. Furthermore, on 22 August 2022, the wealth here was cloudy, which made the optical RS images, e.g., Sentinel-2 images full of clouds. The results show that: using the Sentinel-1 image and threshold segmentation method to extract water body data is efficient and effective with excellent results in permafrost areas. Concretely, the Sentinel-1 dual-polarized water index (SDWI), calculated by combining dual vertical–vertical (VV) polarized and vertical–horizontal (VH) polarized data is a useful index for water extraction and the result is better than each of the VV or VH polarized images.

Characterization of Mu-Like Yersinia Phages Exhibiting Temperature Dependent Infection.

Yersinia pestis is the etiological agent of plague. Marmota himalayana of the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau is the primary host of flea-borne Y. pestis. This study is the report of isolation of Mu-like bacteriophages of Y. pestis from M. himalayana. The isolation and characterization of four Mu-like phages of Y. pestis were reported, which were named as vB_YpM_3, vB_YpM_5, vB_YpM_6, and vB_YpM_23 according to their morphology. Comparative genome analysis revealed that vB_YpM_3, vB_YpM_5, vB_YpM_6, and vB_YpM_23 are phylogenetically closest to Escherichia coli phages Mu, D108 and Shigella flexneri phage SfMu. The role of LPS core structure of Y. pestis in the phages' receptor was pinpointed. All the phages exhibit "temperature dependent infection," which is independent of the growth temperature of the host bacteria and dependent of the temperature of phage infection. The phages lyse the host bacteria at 37°C, but enter the lysogenic cycle and become prophages in the chromosome of the host bacteria at 26°C. IMPORTANCE Mu-like bacteriophages of Y. pestis were isolated from M. himalayana of the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau in China. These bacteriophages have a unique temperature dependent life cycle, follow a lytic cycle at the temperature of warm-blooded mammals (37°С), and enter the lysogenic cycle at the temperature of its flea-vector (26°С). A switch from the lysogenic to the lytic cycle occurred when lysogenic bacteria were incubated from lower temperature to higher temperature (initially incubating at 26°C and shifting to 37°C). It is speculated that the temperature dependent lifestyle of bacteriophages may affect the population dynamics and pathogenicity of Y. pestis.

Risk assessment and regulation between the supply and demand of ecological products: A comprehensive framework and case study

Humans are facing increasing supply–demand risks of ecological products (EPs) due to the uncertainty of the interaction between ecosystems and social systems. To address this issue, a comprehensive framework for risk assessment and regulation is urgently need to identify areas and levels of risk that threaten human well-being. In this study, we constructed a framework for retrospective assessment and optimal regulation of supply–demand risks of EPs, which covers four indicators: the supply–demand index (SDI), the changing trend of SDI, the changing trend of supply, and trade-offs and synergies. Taking Qinghai Province in the northeast of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in China as an example, we conducted a case study on five types of EPs: food production, water conservation, carbon sequestration, soil retention, and outdoor recreation. Our results showed that various types of EPs were basically in the state of supply exceeds demand, with significant spatial differences in supply–demand risk levels. Areas with high risk levels were mainly distributed in urban concentrated development areas in the eastern part of the research area, and the spatial matching of supply and demand in these areas often present high supply and high demand. In addition, for the supply–demand risk of different levels of EPs, we proposed intra-regional and cross-regional optimization regulation strategies, combining the spatial matching status of supply and demand of EPs. It can help decision-makers improve the efficiency of the allocation of EPs supply and demand and the scientific nature of policy formulation at a regional scale.

Spatial pattern of land use along the terrain gradient of Qinghai Tibet Plateau: a case study of Qiangtang Plateau, China

Understanding the land use and land cover (LULC) pattern of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau in China is crucial to support the structural and functional integrity of the ecological barrier of the plateau. This information has significant implications not only for the ecological environment and regional development of the plateau but also for the broader environmental impact at regional and global levels. It is critical to comprehend the spatial pattern and ascertain the underlying causes of land use and land cover in significant areas of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau. This can enable the formulation and implementation of context-specific policies and measures that can contribute to enhancing the ecological security barrier function of the plateau. This study focused on the core area of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau - the Qiangtang Plateau. Based on surface cover data from 2020 and ASTER GDEMV3 data, distribution indices and geographic detectors were used to explore the quantitative impact of land use/cover spatial patterns and terrain factors on land use/cover spatial distribution. The results showed the following: 1) The land use/cover space of the Qiangtang Plateau was dominated by grassland and bare land. Specifically, grassland had the greatest area, accounting for approximately 63.94% of the plateau area and covering an area of 449,983 km2. Grassland was widely distributed in most areas of the plateau. Bare land was the second-largest land cover type, with an area of 186,302 km2, accounting for 26.47% of the plateau area. Bare land was primarily located in the western and northern parts of the plateau. 2) The spatial differentiation of land use/cover in the Qiangtang Plateau was significant. Grasslands were primarily distributed in low mountainous areas characterized by high relief, gentle slopes, and low roughness. In contrast, bare land was mainly distributed in low mountainous areas with high relief, steep slopes, and low roughness. 3) The main drivers of the spatial distribution of land use/cover on the Qiangtang Plateau were elevation, roughness, and relief. Moreover, the interactions between these three terrain factors and other environmental variables significantly influenced the land use/cover pattern in the study area.